Chariots
A chariot is a two-wheeled, horse-drawn vehicle. In Latin biga is a two-horse chariot, and quadriga is a four-horse chariot (the word "chariot" itself comes from Latin carrus). It was used for ancient warfare during the Bronze and Iron Ages, and continued to be used for travel, processions and in games after it had been superseded militarily.
The critical invention that allowed the construction of light, horse-drawn chariots for use in battle was the spoked wheel. In these times, most horses could not support the weight of a man in battle; the original wild horse was a large pony in size. With a chariot the horse does not have to carry anything. It was once thought that chariots were effective in war only on fairly flat, open terrain, however modern reconstructions have shown that they were stable weapon platforms over a wide variety of terrain. The faster it went, the smoother the ride and the better the gun platform.
As horses were gradually bred to be larger and stronger, chariots gave way to cavalry. The main reason was probably economic - 2 Chronicles 1:17 records that chariots cost 600 shekels, horses 150 - thus the cost of a complete 2 horse chariot was 900 shekels. Once cavalry could perform reasonably well the enormous cost of the chariot could be saved.
However for reasons not yet clear chariots remained in use in considerable numbers for hundreds of years after the introduction of effective cavalry.
The earliest spoke-wheeled chariots date to ca. 2000 BC and their usage peaked around 1300 BC (see Battle of Kadesh). Chariot races continued to be popular in Constantinople until the 6th century.
The critical invention that allowed the construction of light, horse-drawn chariots for use in battle was the spoked wheel. In these times, most horses could not support the weight of a man in battle; the original wild horse was a large pony in size. With a chariot the horse does not have to carry anything. It was once thought that chariots were effective in war only on fairly flat, open terrain, however modern reconstructions have shown that they were stable weapon platforms over a wide variety of terrain. The faster it went, the smoother the ride and the better the gun platform.
As horses were gradually bred to be larger and stronger, chariots gave way to cavalry. The main reason was probably economic - 2 Chronicles 1:17 records that chariots cost 600 shekels, horses 150 - thus the cost of a complete 2 horse chariot was 900 shekels. Once cavalry could perform reasonably well the enormous cost of the chariot could be saved.
However for reasons not yet clear chariots remained in use in considerable numbers for hundreds of years after the introduction of effective cavalry.
The earliest spoke-wheeled chariots date to ca. 2000 BC and their usage peaked around 1300 BC (see Battle of Kadesh). Chariot races continued to be popular in Constantinople until the 6th century.
A Brief History of Chariot Warfare and Its Effects on the Catastrophe of ca 1200 B.C
For many people, both laypersons and scholars, the history of science begins with the Classical Age of Greece. With the appearance of such great thinkers as Aristotle and Ptolemy came ideas that would influence science and the study of nature for centuries to come. But underlying this chronology of the history of science is the assumption that nothing of value occurred prior to this time. There is so little written evidence of the Bronze Age cultures of pre-Classical Greece and the Mediterranean that many do not treat it with the attention it deserves. The assumption seems to be that if anything of any import occurred during that time period it was never written down and has since been lost to us forever. However there is very clear evidence of important discoveries made during this period in history. Improvements such as metal working (with bronze and copper), the invention of the wheel, and the domestication of the horse to name just a few, were not just happy accidents. The difficulty of first discovering and then mastering these and other advancements make it clear that artisans and craftsmen must have spent generations perfecting their use and development.
I picked out these three events for a reason. The domestication of the horse, the invention of the wheel and metallurgy also had a very direct impact on the birth of the Classical Age. These developments, along with many others, brought about major changes in warfare, political boundaries, and the population distribution over much of the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean. In many ways it was these inventions and the subsequent changes they created that brought about the end of the Bronze Age and set the stage for the birth of the Classical Mediterranean. Specifically these events resulted in the invention of one of the most famous and enigmatic weapons of Bronze Age warfare; the chariot.
Though best known from Egyptian tomb reliefs and steles, the chariot has a far more ancient history that must be understood before its true impact on the Bronze Age World can be explained. By 5000 BC there is evidence that the horse, a creature native to the eastern European steppes, had been domesticated by the native tribes there. Coincidentally the ass and the onager, both relatives of the horse had been domesticated in the Near East and eastern Mediterranean by this time as well. At this early stage in history, the horse was probably nothing more than a food animal such as cattle are today. "During the Ice Age, horses were perhaps the favorite game animal of hunters in Eurasia...other equids flourished in the warmer regions...the ass (Equus asinus) in Northern Africa and Southern Europe; and in south western Asia, from India to Anatolia and Palestine, Equus hemionus commonly known as the onager or the Asiatic wild ass" (Drews 1988, pg 74). This creature is not the horse we know today. It would not have even been called a horse by today's standards but rather a pony. As a result these creatures, though very quick and nimble, were too small to carry a man for very far before tiring. These early horses also made poor work animals. At this time many wheeled vehicle were very heavy, weighing as much as one thousand pounds. The method for harnessing a horse was a neck strap. Therefore the harder an equid tried to pull against a heavy load the more their breathing was impaired. In fact it seems unlikely that these ancient horses could pull loads greater than four hundred pounds. The preferred beast of burden was the oxen. Despite having a walking speed of only 2 mph, the oxen was a far sturdier and stronger beast than the ancient horse, capable of pulling much heavier loads for longer distances. It was not until the development of the chariot that the horse's greater speed and agility would come into use.
There is evidence for wheeled carts and wagons as far back as the third millennium BC. Prior to this time is seems that many people pulled heavy loads on sleds using their own power or perhaps tethering the sleds to oxen. The first evidence of these vehicles comes from Sumeria in depictions of kings been driven in wagons by teams of onagers. It was in Sumeria in fact that the first evidence for a battle chariot was uncovered.
These vehicles, commonly called "battle wagons" were not much like the chariots that most people know of. They were wood constructs with four solid wheels and could weight several hundred pounds. Instead of being pulled by a pair of horses, onagers or asses pulled them into battle. Depictions from Sumerian tombs show a pair of riders, one driving the animals and another armed with javelins. Modern reconstructions of these vehicles show they were capable of a top speed of only 12 mph, not any faster than a man can run. Additionally, having four wheels made the cart very difficult to turn. Finally the bit had not yet been introduced to the Near East at this time and the onagers were controlled by nose rings. This made directing a team of four of these creatures very difficult. Going straight ahead was no problem but turning them all in unison was probably a very serious one. To use their weapons effectively, the team would've had to get very close to the enemy infantry and this would've been very dangerous for the slow and unwieldy machine. "No representations of carts in battle appear in the last three centuries of the third millennium BC; the idea must've been abandoned" (Anglim 2002, pg 80). What were needed was a much lighter, faster and more maneuverable "battle wagon".
These were developed by the twentieth century B.C. in Anatolia and quickly spread to other areas of the eastern Mediterranean and Asia. "By 1600 chariot warriors were in control of Mycenae and elsewhere in Greece, and not long thereafter chariots took over northwestern India" (Drews 1993, pg 106). The chariot remained the main weapon of the late Bronze Age until the Catastrophe of 1200B.C. Depictions of these vehicles show a light weight construct with two spoked wheels set far back on the machine for easy weight distribution and turning. These were truly the chariots that most people think of when they see Ben-Hur or Gladiator. Chariots were usually made out of a light wood such as cedar that was sturdy and easy to work. The frame sometimes left bare but usually covered with tough leather and stucco. The wheels of the chariot were one of its major technological developments. Prior to the use of chariots all wheels were made of solid wood. With the invention of the chariot came spoked wheels. These were usually four spoked (or later six spoked) wheels that could be as much as 80% lighter than the solid wheels used previously. The floor was made of interwoven leather strips to provide a light weight but strong elastic support for the riders. (Figure 2)
This vehicle was then attached to two horses via harnesses across their necks and chests. Modern reconstructions of such chariots show that they could sustain speeds of over 24 mph for several minutes and with the maneuverability of two wheels were clearly an improvement on the old Sumerian models.
I picked out these three events for a reason. The domestication of the horse, the invention of the wheel and metallurgy also had a very direct impact on the birth of the Classical Age. These developments, along with many others, brought about major changes in warfare, political boundaries, and the population distribution over much of the Late Bronze Age Mediterranean. In many ways it was these inventions and the subsequent changes they created that brought about the end of the Bronze Age and set the stage for the birth of the Classical Mediterranean. Specifically these events resulted in the invention of one of the most famous and enigmatic weapons of Bronze Age warfare; the chariot.
Though best known from Egyptian tomb reliefs and steles, the chariot has a far more ancient history that must be understood before its true impact on the Bronze Age World can be explained. By 5000 BC there is evidence that the horse, a creature native to the eastern European steppes, had been domesticated by the native tribes there. Coincidentally the ass and the onager, both relatives of the horse had been domesticated in the Near East and eastern Mediterranean by this time as well. At this early stage in history, the horse was probably nothing more than a food animal such as cattle are today. "During the Ice Age, horses were perhaps the favorite game animal of hunters in Eurasia...other equids flourished in the warmer regions...the ass (Equus asinus) in Northern Africa and Southern Europe; and in south western Asia, from India to Anatolia and Palestine, Equus hemionus commonly known as the onager or the Asiatic wild ass" (Drews 1988, pg 74). This creature is not the horse we know today. It would not have even been called a horse by today's standards but rather a pony. As a result these creatures, though very quick and nimble, were too small to carry a man for very far before tiring. These early horses also made poor work animals. At this time many wheeled vehicle were very heavy, weighing as much as one thousand pounds. The method for harnessing a horse was a neck strap. Therefore the harder an equid tried to pull against a heavy load the more their breathing was impaired. In fact it seems unlikely that these ancient horses could pull loads greater than four hundred pounds. The preferred beast of burden was the oxen. Despite having a walking speed of only 2 mph, the oxen was a far sturdier and stronger beast than the ancient horse, capable of pulling much heavier loads for longer distances. It was not until the development of the chariot that the horse's greater speed and agility would come into use.
There is evidence for wheeled carts and wagons as far back as the third millennium BC. Prior to this time is seems that many people pulled heavy loads on sleds using their own power or perhaps tethering the sleds to oxen. The first evidence of these vehicles comes from Sumeria in depictions of kings been driven in wagons by teams of onagers. It was in Sumeria in fact that the first evidence for a battle chariot was uncovered.
These vehicles, commonly called "battle wagons" were not much like the chariots that most people know of. They were wood constructs with four solid wheels and could weight several hundred pounds. Instead of being pulled by a pair of horses, onagers or asses pulled them into battle. Depictions from Sumerian tombs show a pair of riders, one driving the animals and another armed with javelins. Modern reconstructions of these vehicles show they were capable of a top speed of only 12 mph, not any faster than a man can run. Additionally, having four wheels made the cart very difficult to turn. Finally the bit had not yet been introduced to the Near East at this time and the onagers were controlled by nose rings. This made directing a team of four of these creatures very difficult. Going straight ahead was no problem but turning them all in unison was probably a very serious one. To use their weapons effectively, the team would've had to get very close to the enemy infantry and this would've been very dangerous for the slow and unwieldy machine. "No representations of carts in battle appear in the last three centuries of the third millennium BC; the idea must've been abandoned" (Anglim 2002, pg 80). What were needed was a much lighter, faster and more maneuverable "battle wagon".
These were developed by the twentieth century B.C. in Anatolia and quickly spread to other areas of the eastern Mediterranean and Asia. "By 1600 chariot warriors were in control of Mycenae and elsewhere in Greece, and not long thereafter chariots took over northwestern India" (Drews 1993, pg 106). The chariot remained the main weapon of the late Bronze Age until the Catastrophe of 1200B.C. Depictions of these vehicles show a light weight construct with two spoked wheels set far back on the machine for easy weight distribution and turning. These were truly the chariots that most people think of when they see Ben-Hur or Gladiator. Chariots were usually made out of a light wood such as cedar that was sturdy and easy to work. The frame sometimes left bare but usually covered with tough leather and stucco. The wheels of the chariot were one of its major technological developments. Prior to the use of chariots all wheels were made of solid wood. With the invention of the chariot came spoked wheels. These were usually four spoked (or later six spoked) wheels that could be as much as 80% lighter than the solid wheels used previously. The floor was made of interwoven leather strips to provide a light weight but strong elastic support for the riders. (Figure 2)
This vehicle was then attached to two horses via harnesses across their necks and chests. Modern reconstructions of such chariots show that they could sustain speeds of over 24 mph for several minutes and with the maneuverability of two wheels were clearly an improvement on the old Sumerian models.
Chariot racing
By: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chariot racing was one of the most popular ancient Greek and Roman sports. Often dangerous to both drivers and horses, who frequently suffered serious injury and even death, the sport generated strong spectator enthusiasm comparable to modern-day interest in motor sports. Some of the organizational aspects of chariot racing also paralleled current practices in professional sports. In the Roman form of chariot racing, teams represented different groups of financial backers and sometimes competed for the services of particularly skilled drivers. These teams became the focus of intense support among spectators, and occasional disturbances broke out between followers of different teams. The conflicts sometimes became politicized, as the sport began to transcend the races themselves and started to affect society overall. This helps explain why Roman and later Byzantine emperors took control of the teams and appointed many officials to oversee them. The sport faded in importance after the fall of the Roman Empire in the west, surviving only for a time in the Byzantine Empire. A form of the sport exists today as harness racing.
Roman chariot racing
The Romans probably borrowed chariot racing from the Etruscans, who themselves borrowed it from the Greeks, but the Romans were also influenced directly by the Greeks especially after they conquered mainland Greece in 146 BC.
According to Roman legend chariot racing was used by Romulus just after he founded Rome in 753 B.C. as a way of distracting the Sabine men. Whilst the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle Romulus and his men seized and carried off the Sabine women. This event is more commonly known as "The Rape of the Sabine Women."
In ancient Rome the main centre of chariot racing was the Circus Maximus in the valley between Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill, which could seat 250,000 people. The Circus probably dated back to the time of the Etruscans, but it was rebuilt by Julius Caesar around 50 BC so that it had a length of about 600 metres and a width of about 225 metres. One end of the track was more open than the other, as this was where the chariots lined up to begin the race. The Romans used a series of gates known as carceres, an equivalent to the Greek hysplex. These were staggered in the same way as the hysplex, but they were slightly different because Roman racing tracks also had a median (the spina) in the centre of the track. The carceres took up the angled end of the track, and the chariots were loaded into spring-loaded gates. When the chariots were ready, the emperor (or whoever was hosting the races, if they were not in Rome) dropped a cloth known as a mappa, signalling the beginning of the race. The gates would spring open, creating a perfectly fair beginning for all participants.
Once the race had begun, the chariots could move in front of each other in an attempt to cause their opponents to crash into the spinae (singular spina). The spinae had "eggs", similar to the "dolphins" of the Greek races, which may have dropped into a channel of water that ran along the top of the spinae to signify the number of laps remaining. The spina eventually became very elaborate, with statues and obelisks and other forms of art, so that the spectators often could not see the chariots on the other side (but they seem to have thought this was more suspenseful and exciting). At either end of the spina there were turning posts (metae, singular meta), and spectacular crashes took place there, as in the Greek races. Crashes in which the chariot was destroyed and the charioteer and horses incapacitated were known as naufragia, also the Latin word for shipwrecks.
A winner of a Roman chariot race, from the Red team. The main venue for racing in ancient Rome was the Circus Maximus, which seated 250,000 people.
The race itself was much like its Greek counterpart, although there were eventually dozens of races every day, sometimes for hundreds of consecutive days each year. However, a race consisted of only 7 laps (and later 5 laps, so that there could be even more races per day), instead of the 12 laps of the Greek race. The Roman style was also more money-oriented; racers were professionals and there was widespread betting among spectators. There were four-horse chariots (quadrigae) and two-horse chariots (bigae), but the four-horse races were more important. In rare cases, if a driver wanted to show off his skill, he could use up to 10 horses, although this was extremely impractical. The Roman drivers also wore helmets and other protective gear, unlike the Greeks, and they wrapped the reins round their waist, while the Greeks held the reins in their hands. Because of this the Romans could not let go of the reins in a crash, so they would be dragged around the circus until they were killed or they freed themselves. The Romans carried a knife to cut themselves free in this situation. The most famous and best reconstruction of a Roman chariot race, although inaccurate in several elements, can be seen in the film Ben-Hur.
According to Roman legend chariot racing was used by Romulus just after he founded Rome in 753 B.C. as a way of distracting the Sabine men. Whilst the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle Romulus and his men seized and carried off the Sabine women. This event is more commonly known as "The Rape of the Sabine Women."
In ancient Rome the main centre of chariot racing was the Circus Maximus in the valley between Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill, which could seat 250,000 people. The Circus probably dated back to the time of the Etruscans, but it was rebuilt by Julius Caesar around 50 BC so that it had a length of about 600 metres and a width of about 225 metres. One end of the track was more open than the other, as this was where the chariots lined up to begin the race. The Romans used a series of gates known as carceres, an equivalent to the Greek hysplex. These were staggered in the same way as the hysplex, but they were slightly different because Roman racing tracks also had a median (the spina) in the centre of the track. The carceres took up the angled end of the track, and the chariots were loaded into spring-loaded gates. When the chariots were ready, the emperor (or whoever was hosting the races, if they were not in Rome) dropped a cloth known as a mappa, signalling the beginning of the race. The gates would spring open, creating a perfectly fair beginning for all participants.
Once the race had begun, the chariots could move in front of each other in an attempt to cause their opponents to crash into the spinae (singular spina). The spinae had "eggs", similar to the "dolphins" of the Greek races, which may have dropped into a channel of water that ran along the top of the spinae to signify the number of laps remaining. The spina eventually became very elaborate, with statues and obelisks and other forms of art, so that the spectators often could not see the chariots on the other side (but they seem to have thought this was more suspenseful and exciting). At either end of the spina there were turning posts (metae, singular meta), and spectacular crashes took place there, as in the Greek races. Crashes in which the chariot was destroyed and the charioteer and horses incapacitated were known as naufragia, also the Latin word for shipwrecks.
A winner of a Roman chariot race, from the Red team. The main venue for racing in ancient Rome was the Circus Maximus, which seated 250,000 people.
The race itself was much like its Greek counterpart, although there were eventually dozens of races every day, sometimes for hundreds of consecutive days each year. However, a race consisted of only 7 laps (and later 5 laps, so that there could be even more races per day), instead of the 12 laps of the Greek race. The Roman style was also more money-oriented; racers were professionals and there was widespread betting among spectators. There were four-horse chariots (quadrigae) and two-horse chariots (bigae), but the four-horse races were more important. In rare cases, if a driver wanted to show off his skill, he could use up to 10 horses, although this was extremely impractical. The Roman drivers also wore helmets and other protective gear, unlike the Greeks, and they wrapped the reins round their waist, while the Greeks held the reins in their hands. Because of this the Romans could not let go of the reins in a crash, so they would be dragged around the circus until they were killed or they freed themselves. The Romans carried a knife to cut themselves free in this situation. The most famous and best reconstruction of a Roman chariot race, although inaccurate in several elements, can be seen in the film Ben-Hur.
Excerpted from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chariot_racing
